Uncovering the Indigenous history, culture and traditions of Paraguay

The land without evil

Uncovering the history, culture and traditions of little-visited Paraguay

The ruins of Santísima Trinidad del Paraná mission

Paraguay has endured hard times over the centuries, yet the ruins of its Jesuit missions recall the days when its Indigenous people found a strange kind of paradise

Words & Photographs George Kipouros

“No journey in Paraguay can start without tereré,” smiled José Acosta Perez, my encyclopaedic guide, as he watched the street vendor meticulously select different herbs and then pound them together in a stone bowl. “It all starts with yerba maté,” he explained, pointing to a leafy green substance nestled among dozens of similar-looking herbs.

“Oh, the Argentinian drink,” I replied somewhat instinctively, causing him to visibly rumble in frustration.

A street vendor in Asunción prepares a cool glass of Paraguayan pick-me-up tereré, an infusion of yerba maté made with cold water, a lot of ice and pohá ñaná (a blend of Indigenous medicinal herbs)

A street vendor in Asunción prepares a cool glass of Paraguayan pick-me-up tereré, an infusion of yerba maté made with cold water, a lot of ice and pohá ñaná (a blend of Indigenous medicinal herbs)

“No, no, no! Yerba maté is originally from Paraguay; even its botanical name is Ilex paraguariensis. The local Guaraní people were drinking it as a herbal infusion long before the Argentinians claimed it as their own!” he declared while pressing yet another herb into my hand. “And this natural sweetener, stevia, is another one of our famous exports,” he smiled, taking in my bewilderment.

In truth, I knew very little about Paraguay, one of South America’s least visited countries, until arriving in capital Asunción. José was on a mission to give me a crash course on its history, culture and traditions before our road trip across the country’s southern region, where I would encounter its Christian Jesuit missions and their remarkable story.

The pinkish Palacio López is Paraguay’s present-day seat of Government

Armed with our cooled tereré flasks, we began exploring the capital. Its historic downtown was full of imposing yet derelict colonial-era buildings that seemingly limped alongside the murky Paraguay river. I couldn’t help but think that it felt more like a quiet, provincial town than a major city.

“This is the small capital of a sparsely populated country; that’s why it feels so cosy,” José reassured. But it set me wondering. With just 600,000 citizens, Asunción is home to a respectable enough percentage of Paraguay’s 7 million-strong population, yet even that number seemed too small. This is no backwater; the country occupies a territory similar in size to that of Germany. It was at this moment that José seemingly read my thoughts.

“Ah, the perils of war have had a devastating impact on our land,” he intoned solemnly. We had stopped at the pink-hued Presidential Palacio de López, the city’s most prominent landmark. Named after General Francisco Solano López, it was completed just before the Paraguayan War (also known as the War of the Triple Alliance), which broke out in 1864.

“Unlike the Spanish and Portuguese conquistadors, the Guaraní found the Christian missionaries a lot more amenable to their own worldview”

“We lost over 90% of the country’s male adult population during the war,” explained José. “We still haven’t recovered.”

It was a dark time in the country’s history. The war (1864-1870) was fought against the tripartite force of Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil. It ended disastrously for Paraguay. As the losing party, it had to give up land to the victors, dramatically reducing its borders; but by then, its population had already been severely diminished and its economy devastated. The 20th century wasn’t much of an improvement either, marred by dictatorship and civil strife.

Asunción’s former Parliament building (Cabildo)

Asunción’s former Parliament building (Cabildo)

“The irony is that the local Guaraní people have always been peace-loving,” pondered José, describing their belief system as akin to a prophetic religion, focused on finding ‘Yvy Marãe’y’, or ‘a land without evil’.

José, like 90% of the population, spoke Guaraní, the unique Indigenous language that exists here alongside Spanish. Unlike the rest of the Americas, however, Paraguay is the only nation on the continent with an Indigenous dialect as its official national language.

“Modern-day Paraguay is a fusion of Guaraní traditions and Hispanic influences,” explained José, stoking my eagerness to learn more about the intersection of its Indigenous people and the Europeans. “It all started with the Catholic missionaries that first made contact with the Guaraní in the 16th century. But our story is quite different to that of our neighbouring nations.”

The Church of San Roque Gonzalez is named after the first missionary to visit the Guaraní people of Paraguay

José had arranged a private visit to Asunción’s Museum of Sacred Art, whereupon director Luis Lataza took over. The narrative of modern Paraguay is closely linked with the arrival of its Catholic missionaries: first the Franciscans, then the Company of Jesus, known more commonly as the Jesuits.

“Unlike the Spanish and Portuguese conquistadors, the Guaraní found the Christian missionaries a lot more amenable to their own worldview,” explained Luis.

Indeed, the Guaraní belief system shared many commonalities with Christianity’s biblical teachings, making the missionaries’ work here easier. It was something that became clear as we explored the museum’s religious works and their distinctly Baroque look.

“This is the Mestizo Hispano-Guaraní style that is unique to our country,” remarked Luis. Paraguay, as a nation state, did not exist when this style developed, and he explained how the Guaraní had adopted the Baroque European traditions of the time, filtering them through their own understanding. “The period of the Jesuits, in particular, ended up being a thriving time for the Guaraní, with the creation of vibrant, safe and highly creative settlements.”

Luis was talking of the reducciones (reductions), Guaraní-Christian missionary settlements, of which more than 30 were originally built in a region that is now split between Paraguay, Argentina and Brazil.

“Paraguay has arguably some of the best-preserved remains of these settlements,” continued Luis as he pointed to a map showing just how widespread the Jesuit missions had been. He concluded the tour by highlighting Guaraní-influenced religious artwork that had been salvaged from a number of the missions, and by encouraging me to visit “as many as I had time for”.

I was vaguely familiar with the story of the Jesuit missions in Paraguay, having watched the Palme d’Or-winning 1986 film The Mission with its – spoiler alert – brutal ending.

“The film is surprisingly historically accurate,” agreed José while countering that its locations are mostly fictitious, particularly in relation to Iguazu Falls. Instead, he showed me a road-trip route that took in some of the most important religious monuments of the country, branded by Paraguay’s tourism board as ‘the Jesuit Route’.

The Franciscans built some of the region’s first Catholic institutions, and their San Buenaventura de Yaguarón church remains remarkably intact

After less than an hour’s drive from Asunción, we arrived at Yaguarón to visit the town’s show-stopping centrepiece: the only intact church in Paraguay that comes from an original Christian missionary reduccione, albeit one built by the Franciscans. However, its style was later mirrored by the Jesuits in their own settlements.

The simple white limestone and timber exterior did not prepare me for the ornate gilded interior: an explosion of Baroque maximalism with subtle Indigenous references.

Surprisingly, there were no other visitors in the church – a pattern mostly mirrored throughout my travels across Paraguay.

Inside Yaguaron church

Inside Yaguaron church

“We used to have many more visitors when Paraguay was the gateway to Iguazu Falls,” acknowledged José. The country has indeed witnessed a steady decline in visitor numbers over the last two decades, and still very much feels unspoilt by tourism compared to many of its South American neighbours.

The mellow, harp-heavy rhythms of the Paraguayan polka provided a suitable soundtrack to the evergreen, lush fields we passed as we drove further south. Much of this region is planted with yerba maté, I was told.

“Our land is so fertile that we can have three different crops a year,” smiled José, “and that is what makes our beef so tasty.” Paraguay is one of the world’s leading exporters of beef, and we passed by thousands of cows, some of them seemingly free-range.

Fittingly, we also encountered many arrieros (Paraguayan cowboys), who waved hello with their hats every time we passed them by.

A group of arrieros (cowboys) trot past

We made an overnight stop in Santa Maria de Fe, where local guide Lelis opened the town’s museum for us, which was run from a traditional Guaraní house that had been restored in 1980. The town’s namesake Jesuit church burned down in 1889, but thankfully many of the altarpieces and statues were saved. These are still used in modern-day rituals within the community, especially during local religious festivals.

The Santa Maria de Fe church was built to replace the old Jesuit one that burned down in 1889

The Santa Maria de Fe church was built to replace the old Jesuit one that burned down in 1889

“Christianity, Catholicism are still central to Paraguayan identity; we are quite religious people,” affirmed Lelis as she showed me some of the original Jesuit statues, now repositioned in Santa Maria de Fe’s new church.

It was a full house when I visited the fully restored church of the San Cosme y San Damián mission on a Saturday morning. Interestingly, it was the city’s youths that made up most of the worshippers. Augustin, my Guaraní guide, explained that regular workshops and many activities for the town’s residents were still run on the site and that it didn’t just operate as a museum.

Having originally been founded in 1632 with some 3,000 Guaraní, I was surprised to learn that the settlement of San Cosme y San Damián had a reputation among the Jesuit missions for its scientific achievements.

Augustin shows off the sundial in the courtyard of San Cosme y San Damián

Augustin shows off the sundial in the courtyard of San Cosme y San Damián

“Somehow we managed to become the main centre for astronomy in South America,” beamed Augustin. Central to this was the work of Father Buenaventura Suárez, a scientist and geographer who worked with the local Guaraní in the early 18th century, building telescopes, a pendulum clock, an astronomical dial, and a sundial that still stands in the restored site’s courtyard.

San Cosme y San Damián, which was founded in 1632 by Father Adriano Formoso, still has a functional church, after it was restored upon the request of the local community

I bid farewell and moved on to the UNESCO-listed Santísima Trinidad del Paraná, which is probably the most captivating of all the eight surviving Jesuit mission sites in Paraguay. With grandiose ruins set amid tropical vegetation and towering palm trees, it resembled a Christian version of Angkor Wat. Trinidad is indicative of the typical scale of the Jesuit missions, featuring a large main plaza surrounded by an imposing church, a school, artists’ workshops, multiple houses and a cemetery. Overall, the atmospheric state of Trinidad’s ruins made it feel much older than its 1706 foundation date.

Visiting the main church, we discovered Baroque, Romanesque, Greek and Roman influences, all infused with local Guaraní elements. In this unprecedented acculturation process, the Guaraní were never forced to fully ‘Europeanise’, and their culture and traditions were incorporated in Jesuit Catholic teachings. In turn, the Jesuits shared their knowledge of the arts, music and their technical skills with the Guaraní, who readily adopted and evolved these teachings.

“With its grandiose ruins, the Trinidad mission resembled a Christian version of Angkor Wat”

“The Guaraní liked the Jesuits because, like them, they lived very simple lives; their clothes were not fancy and they worked hard together,” explained José, elaborating the social structures of the day. “They ultimately became close with the Jesuits, considering them their equals; their brothers, who suffered or prospered alongside them,” he continued, comparing this with the damning treatment of Indigenous populations in the Americas by the Spanish and Portuguese.

“Plato’s The Republic and Thomas More’s Utopia were reportedly taking place in Paraguay,” chuckled José, referring to surviving documentation from the Spanish and Portuguese authorities, which expressed surprise at this unique example of a colonial missionary expansion.

For many Guaraní, this was finally their ‘Yvy Marãe’y’; their land without evil. However, all good things must come to an end, as my next destination reminded me.

The Jesús de Tavarangüe Jesuit Guaraní mission was the last stop on our road trip, a mere 20 minutes’ drive from Trinidad and also part of UNESCO’s World Heritage list. Set amid lush, hilly landscapes, the remains of a monumental church still dominate the site. If Trinidad looked like a Christian Angkor, then Jesús could have been Borobudur.

The Mudéjar-style arches of the interior of the unfinished church at Jesús de Tavarangüe recall designs found in Moorish Spain

The Mudéjar-style arches of the interior of the unfinished church at Jesús de Tavarangüe recall designs found in Moorish Spain

“The church at Jesús would have been one of the largest in South America were it to have been finished,” related José as we walked around its columnated interior. Its architectural style couldn’t feel more out of place with the surrounding jungle, with its strong Mudéjar (Christian-Arab) influences almost reminiscent of Andalucía.

This church and site comes alive in the evening when a 3D projection narrates the story of the Jesuit missions in Paraguay. I was one of a handful attendees escorted back into the site at sundown by local Guaraní guide Kuaray, who was dressed in Jesuit-inspired attire. The video projected onto the walls of the unfinished cathedral was equal parts stimulating, patriotic and heartbreaking as it came to its end – and that of the Jesuits.

The story of the Jesuits is projected across the church walls at the Jesús mission

The economic growth of the Jesuit missions and their continued political independence caused animosity among the Spanish conquistadors, who ravaged the neighbouring regions. There were multiple attempts to bring the missions back under the complete control of the Spanish authorities. The dramatic ending to this utopian experiment came when the Jesuits were expelled from the Americas by decree of the King of Spain in 1767, bringing a forced end to the missions and evicting an estimated 100,000 Indigenous inhabitants. The church at Jesús was never to be completed and the site was abandoned.

Was it really a utopia that existed here during the time of the missionaries, I asked Kuaray, eager to understand how history had imprinted itself on the local psyche?

“Becoming Christian meant that the Spanish could not readily kill us, as if we were non-believer natives,” he explained with a pragmatism that was all too understandable. Being part of the reducciones also meant the Guaraní were protected from European slave traders as well as the Spanish encomienda, a colonial forced labour system with heavy overtones of slavery.

“Christianity was as much a necessity for the local population as it was a choice,” Kuaray concluded.

As we departed the site for our return to Asunción, I asked José what he thought of the Guaraní prophecy of a ‘land without evil’.

“Perhaps it’s not as distant a land as it sounds,” he affirmed with a curious smile. “In Paraguay we already have fertile land, great weather, wonderful people. Perhaps our promised land has been here all along.”

About the trip:

The author’s ground travel was organised by Journey Latin America.

A seven-day tailor-made journey following the same route, including Asunción and the Jesuit missions, includes hotels on a B&B basis, excursions and transfers.

Accommodation:

Asunción has a number of good hotels, including the Jesuit mission-themed La Misión Hotel Boutique.

Outside of Asunción, accommodation and restaurants are in short supply and are of low quality. Hotel Papillion, located close to both Santísima Trinidad del Paraná and Jesús de Tavarangüe, is a notable exception and a good base for visiting the missions.

21 incredible UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Latin America

1. Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador & Peru

Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System (Dreamstime)

Visiting Qhapaq Ñan is a daunting prospect. This network of Andean roads was built by the Inca to connect their capital Cuzco to outposts of the empire as far afield as the Colombian sierra to the north and Santiago in the south.

The system, which was trodden by message-relaying chasqui (runners), traders, soldiers, pilgrims and llama caravans, weaves across six countries, via high peaks, thick rainforests and arid deserts, covering some 30,000km.

At the moment it’s more an idea than a cohesive site – while masterful engineering has ensured much of the matrix is still intact, many pathways are overgrown.

However, you can easily visit patches of it. Peru’s Inca Trail to Machu Picchu is the headline segment; other traceable bits include the highland route between Achupallas and Ingapirca in central Ecuador, the various strands around Rancagua in Chile, and Bolivia’s Takesi Trail, which starts near La Paz, crosses the Cordillera Real and dives down into the lush Yungas valleys.

2. Los Glaciares National Park in Patagonia, Argentina

Los Glaciares National Park (Shutterstock)

See the South Patagonian Ice Field at its most splendid. This UNESCO site encompasses 6,000 sq km of incredible iciness: around half of the park is covered in namesake glaciers, which ooze down rugged mountainsides and crash into blue-turquoise lakes.

One lake, Argentino, is fed by three vast ice tongues (Upsala, Onelli and Perito Moreno), which regularly calve thunderously into the milky waters. Los Glaciares also protects a swathe of pristine Patagonian steppe, Magellanic forests and southern beech (fiery in autumn), as well as puma, condor and ostrich-like choique.

The alpine village of El Chaltén is a good hub for trekkers; from here you can hike round Mount Fitz Roy. Alternatively, for the drama of Perito Moreno, catch a bus from El Calafate then stroll between the viewpoints on the Península de Magallanes, take a boat trip up to the glacier’s 60m-high face, or hire a guide and crampons to walk on top.

3. Iguazu/Iguaçu National Park in Argentina/Brazil

Iguazu/Iguaçu National Park (Shutterstock)

Iguazu’s so good they inscribed it twice – the Argentine side of this gigantic, jungle-shrouded waterfall became a UNESCO site in 1984, the Brazilian side in 1986. In short, it’s a natural World Heritage wonder whichever angle you’re coming from, a comely collection of between 160 and 270 cascades (depending on the water volume) tumbling into a border-straddling gorge.

But while the 3km-wide falls are the most obvious attraction here – and visitable in various ways, including upper trails, lower trails, get-you-wet boardwalks and boat trips – the surrounding parks are a less-expected revelation. The spray ensures everything around Iguazu Falls is well watered, leading to a profusion of green. This is a realm of subtropical forest, thick with Brazilian pine, wild palms, imbuya, tree ferns, lianas and epiphytes.

4. City of Potosí in Central Highlands, Bolivia

City of Potosí (Shutterstock)

Potosí, which sits breathless on the barren plains at an altitude of around 4,000m, is a place of mixed fortunes. In the 16th century, when silver ore was discovered here, it became the richest city in the Americas. But when the supply dried up in the 19th century, Potosí went into decline.

So it is with its World Heritage status. The city was inscribed in 1987 for being a matchless example of colonial industrialism and architecture. However, in 2014 Potosí was placed on UNESCO’s ‘In Danger’ list: the continuance of mining is destabilising Cerro Rico – the ‘rich mountain’ from which all the silver was sourced – and threatening the authenticity of the site.

Potosí is still worth visiting, though. It has more than 20 churches and over 2,000 historic buildings, some with red-tiled roofs and graceful porticos, some in pretty pastels, others with intricate iron balconies.

5. Tiwanaku in Altiplano, Bolivia

Tiwanaku (Shutterstock)

Forget the Inca for a minute. The Tiwanaku culture, which at its peak (AD 500-900) numbered 50,000 people, is the real cradle of Andean civilisation. Its centre was the namesake city of Tiwanaku, perched close to the southern shores of Lake Titicaca at a lung-squeezing altitude of 3,850m. The city once covered several square kilometres, though only a small part has been excavated.

What has been unearthed is the ceremonial centre of Tiwanaku, a complex of ruined pyramids, temples, palaces and megaliths set amid the barren highlands. Most striking is the seven-tiered Pyramid of Akapana, believed to be the religious heart of Tiwanaku – local Aymara people still come here to leave offerings to the achachilas (mountain gods).

To get a good overview of the complex and culture, start at the on-site museum, which displays items – pots, idols and fragments of elaborate textiles – that nod to its skills.

6. Brasília in Federal District, Brazil

Cathedral of Brasília (Shutterstock)

Brasília is a World Heritage youngster. The pre-planned Brazilian capital only came into being in 1956, and was inscribed onto the list just 31 years later. This is thanks to the imagination and innovation of urban planner Lucio Costa and architect Oscar Niemeyer, who dreamed up a city of harmonious Modernist design.

The vibe is retro space-age, laid out in an airplane-like shape, with futuristic skyscrapers and government buildings on one axis and the residential areas on the other, linked by excellent roads.

Visit the cathedral, which rears up like a splayed crown of thorns; catch a performance or exhibition at the Teatro Nacional, an Aztec-like pyramid of glass; and head to the blocky, grey-black Central Bank building, where the Museum of Money showcases financial history and an enormous nugget of gold.

7. Serra da Capivara National Park in Piauí state, Brazil

Cave paintings of Serra da Capivara National Park (Shutterstock)

This national park in Brazil’s north-east contains a semi-arid land of mountains, plains, valleys, rock formations and Brazilian caatinga (‘white forest’) – a shimmering swathe of scrub, cacti and deciduous woodland. It’s interesting enough in its own right, but the presence of the oldest rock art in the Americas adds an extra tingle.

Some of the 300-odd cave paintings and sites discovered here could date back 30,000-50,000 years. If correct, this contradicts widely held notions of how and when South America was first colonised. The artworks depict a range of scenes, from hunting and dancing to fighting and sex; other pictographs represent animals (jaguar, tapir, rhea) and supernatural beings.

The sites are spread out, so join a tour with an archaeologist guide to help make sense of the magnificent, world-changing markings.

8. Discovery Coast Atlantic Forest Reserves in Bahia and Espírito Santo states, Brazil

Trancoso, Porto Seguro, Bahia (Shutterstock)

Named for the site of the first Portuguese landing, by Pedro Cabral in 1500, the listed area covers eight protected zones, together comprising one of the best remaining sweeps of this ecosystem; rich, tropical broadleaf forest fuzzes the ocean-side limestone plateau.

Indeed, nowhere on the planet has more tree species per hectare, including pernambuco (the country’s national tree), piaçaba palms, jatoba and jussara as well as areas of restingas (moist coastal forest).

A good base is the lively coastal town of Porto Seguro, from where you can make forays into Monte Pascoal National Park and Pau-Brasil National Park – both part of the UNESCO site. In the former, you can climb the namesake mountain (536m), mountain bike towards the sea and visit the Pataxó Indian settlement.

9. Historic Centre of Salvador de Bahia in Bahia state, Brazil

Salvador de Bahia (Shutterstock)

Brazil isn’t short on colonial-era cities with UNESCO listings but Salvador, nestled on a hilly peninsula overlooking Todos os Santos Bay, arguably has something extra.

It was the first capital of Brazil (1549-1763), had the dubious honour of hosting the New World’s first slave market, and is awash with architectural reminders of the past – from the wide plazas to the baroque basilica to tumbledown streets lined with pastel-hued and stuccoed Renaissance houses.

But it’s the multicultural vibe that you notice most: Salvador is the epicentre of African Brazil, and alleys here buzz with candomblé rituals and beating drums. Browse the lanes of the steep, cobbled Pelourinho, tuck into acarajé (deep-fried balls of mashed black-eyed peas with shrimp paste) and watch capoeira moves being cut on the beach.

10. Rapa Nui National Park in Rapa Nui/Easter Island, Chile

Rapa Nui National Park (Shutterstock)

Adrift in the Pacific Ocean, Easter Island is one of the remotest places on the planet – and one of the most mysterious. We think that this small chunk of volcanic rock was first colonised by Eastern Polynesians from around AD 700. But quite why they decided to sculpt huge lumps of tuff, scoria and basalt into strange big heads (known as moai), then haul them from the Rano Raraku crater and erect them all over the island remains a puzzle.

There are around 900 statues in all, ranging from two to 20m tall; some are complete, with obsidian eyes, others have been left semicarved. There are also 300 ceremonial platforms and the remains of other domestic structures. Must-sees include the 15 moai of Ahu Tongariki and the beachside sculptures at Anakena. Also, take a walk around Rano Raraku, to explore the Rapa Nui’s alfresco workshop.

11. Port of Cartagena on the Caribbean coast, Colombia

Cartagena, Colombia (Shutterstock)

Pastel-painted, palace-dotted, wall-wrapped, Caribbean-lapped Cartagena is a dreamy Latin vision made real. UNESCO says, quite perfunctorily, that within the colonial heart of the city ‘can be found civil, religious and residential monuments of beauty and consequence’ but that seems to be missing part of the point.

Yes, Cartagena has a matchless complex of military walls, fortresses and a bastioned harbour, but it is the fairytale feel and sensual vibe that makes the city so intoxicating.

Soak this atmosphere up on a wander amid the old districts of El Centro and San Diego, where church spires soar, colourful streets squiggle, plazas are shaded by rippling palms and windowboxes drip with bougainvillea. Also, take a walk along las murallas (those old 16th-century walls) to gaze down on the city and the sea beyond.

12. Churches of Chiloé, Chile

Churches of Chiloé (Shutterstock)

Speckling the Pacific, just south of the Chilean Lake District, the Chiloé Archipelago stretches around 190km north-south, the surface-probing extremities of a sunken mountain range.

These islands were once the preserve of the native Chonos and Huilliche peoples, who fished and farmed here; however, in 1567 the Spanish arrived. They were followed in 1608 by Jesuit missionaries and, in the 18th and 19th centuries, by the Franciscans, all keen to convert the locals. In order to do this, the new arrivals built a circuit of churches, which they could stay at for a few days as they travelled round, evangelising.

Today there are 60 mission churches on the archipelago, 14 of which are considered particularly impressive, for their exquisite wooden construction, their colourful interiors and their fusion of European and indigenous traditions. Plan your own loop of Chiloé to take some of them in – perhaps the graceful cypress-and-larch church of Nercón, bright blue Tenaún, 53m-long Quinchao (the biggest) or Neo-Gothic Castro.

13. San Agustín Archaeological Park in Huila, Colombia

San Agustín Archaeological Park (Shutterstock)

For a long time, the FCO cautioned against visiting this ancient treasure in southern Colombia; it still does advise against all but essential travel in the regions nearby. Which is a pity, because San Agustín is quite unique, an archaeological wonderland created by a little-known culture that thrived from around AD 0-800.

The handiwork of these ancient peoples is scattered across a wide area in the eastern Andean foothills. There are funerary monuments, burial mounds, stone statuary (in the forms of humans, animals and birds) and even carvings in the rocky bed of a stream. A museum explains some background, then you can hike or horse-ride around the site to get a feel for the scale of the civilisation’s achievements.

14. Galápagos Islands in the Pacific Ocean, Ecuador

Marine iguana on the Galápagos Islands (Shutterstock)

The Galápagos might be the Latin American UNESCO site that’s loved just a bit too much. The magical, yet fragile, archipelago struggles under the weight of people wanting to visit, as well as migration, overfishing and invasive species.

However, despite all of the problems, it remains one of the world’s very best wildlife destinations – there are few other places where the creatures are so unafraid and so brilliantly weird, or that have inspired an entire rethink of evolution.

Cruising around the islands will introduce you to its numerous residents – the playful sea lions, the piles of pitch-black marine iguanas, the lumbering giant tortoises, the many types of booby. Boats with kayaks and snorkel gear will allow different levels of interaction. Just tread carefully as you go.

15. Sangay National Park in Central Andes, Ecuador

Sangay National Park (Shutterstock)

Sangay has been redeemed. This park, which gathers together three 5,000m-plus volcanoes (two of them active) plus valleys, rainforests and a sprinkle of waterfalls, was placed on the ‘In Danger’ list in 1992, when illegal poaching and construction threatened its integrity.

However, by 2005, it was considered fully UNESCO-worthy once more. It’s the range of terrain here that’s so impressive – running the gamut from snowcapped mountain tops and high-altitude páramo to the lush lowlands of the Amazon Basin. Plus, its remoteness means wildlife thrives here: tapir and puma, giant otter and spectacled bear, Andean condor and cock-of-the-rock.

The park can be explored via hiking trails, by bike or on horseback. Technical climbers might fancy El Altar (5,139m), the inactive member of the park’s volcanic trio. Tungurahua (5,016m) is currently too volatile to ascend. Sangay (5,230m) still spits and huffs, but – conditions dependent – can be conquered on a five-day trek.

16. Quito in Northern Ecuador

Quito (Shutterstock)

When UNESCO designated its first 12 World Heritage sites in 1978, the historic centre of the Ecuadorian capital was one of them. Even the powerful earthquake of 1917 couldn’t rattle this Latin lovely: the architecture here remains intact and wonderfully harmonious, a masterclass in the style that became known as the Baroque school of Quito.

This design ethos originated in the 17th and 18th centuries, combining Spanish, Italian, Moorish, Flemish and indigenous styles to create something spectacular.

Amid the Old Town, laid out neatly in a series of squares, are some real gems: the monastery of Santo Domingo, with its exquisite works of art, and the La Compañía church, with its glittering interior of gilded walls, altars and plasterwork. Take a walking tour around the Old Town or ride the teleférico sky tram up Pichincha volcano for the finest city overview.

17. Jesuit Missions of La Santísima in the Trinidad de Paraná & Jesús de Tavarangue Paraná River area, Paraguay

Jesuit Missions of La Santísima (Shutterstock)

Paraguay’s only UNESCO site – like a fair few other Latin inscriptions – owes its existence to those proselytising Jesuits. The Christian crew arrived in the Río de la Plata Basin area in 1588, encouraging locals to adopt the religion but not enforcing a full Europeanisation; consequently, many indigenous traditions remain.

La Santísima Trinidad de Paraná (built in 1706, and the better preserved) and Jesús de Tavarangue (1760), both now in ruins, are 10km apart, and follow a similar design: a central church flanked by the home of the Fathers, with the chiefs’ residence nearby, plus workshops, a yard and cemetery; the indigenous people’ homes were along streets radiating from a large square.

18. Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu in the Andes, Peru

Machu Picchu (Shutterstock)

There were rumours the (over) popular lost Inca citadel might be declared ‘In Danger’ when the UNESCO Committee gathered in July 2015, with a final decision postponed until 2017. Certainly the site is a victim of its own popularity.

Well, it’s a hidden ruin that out-foxed the Spanish, tucked deep in lush, misty mountains, tumbling delightfully down an improbable slope, and accessible only via a splendid old paved pathway or a scenic train – what’s not to love? It has all the romance you could want from a travel destination – but sadly all the people you don’t.

Relieve a bit of the burden on the site by hiking one of the alternative trails to Machu Picchu – perhaps via the Salcantay route, Lares Valley or Choquequirao – and by visiting some of Peru’s lesser known archaeological gems.

19. Manú National Park in the Amazon, Peru

Manú National Park (Shutterstock)

Manú is massive. This park in the Peruvian Amazon covers some 15,000 sq km of tropical forest, snaking rivers, alluvial plains and Andean foothills. The biodiversity here is off the scale; for example, around 850 bird species have been recorded, though who knows how many more species might lurk here. Creatures we do know about include jaguar, giant otter, giant armadillo, black caiman, various monkeys and myriad macaws.

Tourism is only allowed in three areas of the park: the Acjanaco Sector/Tres Cruces, a high-altitude region of puña grasslands and cloudforest, home to puma and Andean bear; the Cultural History Zone, in the Palotoa River Basin, home to the Pusharo petroglyphs; and the Manú River Sector, where boat trips and stays at jungle lodges offer an introduction to both the prolific wildlife and the native culture.

20. Fray Bentos Industrial Landscape in Fray Bentos, Uruguay

Fray Bentos Industrial Landscape (Dreamstime)

Er, yes, meat production heritage! Who knew it was so important? In answer: not as many people as know it now. The factories here, on the banks of the Uruguay River, represent South America’s newest UNESCO site, freshly designated in July 2015.

It’s a huge complex, founded close to the livestock-rich prairies in 1859, and showcasing the whole method of meat manufacturing – from sourcing and processing to packing and dispatching.

The old El Anglo plant, which closed in 1979, is now a heritage museum, an eerily empty disarray of people-less warehouses, unhinged gates, rusty hooks and collapsed cattle corrals. As for the rest of Fray Bentos, there are some leafy plazas and some colourful houses, and the sandy beaches of Las Cañas are 8km away.

21. Canaima National Park, Venezuela

Canaima National Park (Shutterstock)

Canaima, in south-east Venezuela, hard up against the Brazil and Guyana borders, feels positively prehistoric. Around 65% of the park is covered by tepuis – majestic, jungly flat-topped inselbergs that have evolved in splendid isolation, from both the outside world and each other.

This means the area is a hotbed of endemism, with each tepui summit having its own unique ecosystem; the most explored is Mt Roraima, which can be climbed on a steep and sweaty five-day expedition from the village of Paratepui.

The park is also a-splish with waterfalls, not least Angel, the world’s highest, which tumbles 1,002m down the side of Auyantepui. There are also rarities such as giant anteater, giant armadillo and little spotted cat, to the native Pemón people, who have roamed amid Canaima’s forests and savannah for at least 10,000 years.

Discover more of Latin America’s highlights:

8 exciting foodie experiences in Latin America

25 best outdoor experiences in Latin America

7 colourful festivals of Latin America

5 things to do in Paraguay

1. Encarnacion

The ruins of Jesus de Tavarangue, Paraguay (Shutterstock)

Encarnacion is a pretty city, set on the Parana river on Paraguay’s southern border. If you’re up for an adventure, kayak along the river then take a rest on San Jose Beach or in the city park, Plaza de Armas. You can also stroll around the square outside Our Lady Parish Cathedral, before taking the steps up to the entrance of the Church of our Lady of the Immaculate Conception, which is as white as a wedding cake.

The real draw, however, is Paraguay’s only UNESCO site, which is just north of the city. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Jesuit missionaries from Spain established 30 missions in the area – seven of which were in Paraguay – with the goal of spreading Christianity throughout the indigenous population. Today, the Mission of Santísima Trinidad del Paraná, built around 1745, is the best preserved. There is also evidence of an educational building, cemeteries, garden, workshops and homes. The ruins of Jesús de Tavarangue, nearby, were also once home to a church, school and orphanage.

2. Gran Chaco

Peccaries in Gran Chaco, Paraguay (Shutterstock)

Hot and steamy, these lowland plains stretch over Bolivia, Brazil, Argentina and western Paraguay. The name is derived from the word chaqu, which means hunting land in the indigenous language of Quechua.

Home to indigenous tribes, the remote plains are valued for their biodiversity. Here you’ll find wetlands, savannahs, cacti, mature forests and plants such as yerba maté, which is used to make herbal tea.

The land is also valued by farmers, so it suffers from deforestation. However, parts of it are protected national parks, home to howler monkeys, armadillos, anteaters, pig-like peccaries and the herbivorous tapir. Jaguar and puma also roam wild. Twitchers may spot parrots, blue-crowned parakeet and the Chaco finch.

3. Bella Vista del Sur

Thick and soupy, yerba mate is typically drunk with a wide straw made from gourd. You can try it in any cafe but to learn more about it, visit Bella Vista del Sur, which is close to Paraguay’s UNESCO missions.

The town is the epicentre of the yerba mate industry. The country’s most popular brand, Yerba Mate Pajarito, has a museum – Casa Raatz – on the main street which is dedicated to the family that founded the company in 1950. You can also stop by Yerba Mate Pajarito’s nursery or another plantation to tour a factory and learn how it’s made.

4. Ybycui National Park

Guarani waterfall in Ybycui National Park, Paraguay (Shutterstock)

This national park is a 2.5-hour drive from Asuncion, Paraguay’s capital. Popular with locals, it can get busy at weekends, so visit mid-week if you can.

Once you’ve explored its walking trails and waterfalls, cool off by swimming in the natural pools. Birdwatchers, take your binoculars and keep an eye out for parakeets, red and yellow-chested trogons and peacock-blue tanagers. As well as birdlife, visitors regularly spot butterflies around the waterfalls. Look out too for capuchin monkeys and coatis, which are a member of the raccoon family.

5. Pilar

Embroidery in Paraguay (Shutterstock)

For a taste of local life, make the trek to Pilar, in the south west corner of Paraguay. The town is lined with riverside beaches as it’s set on the junction of the Parana River and Paraguay River, which creates a natural border with Argentina.

As well as strolling the parks and paths that line the river, shop for handicrafts such as embroidery, pop into churches and local museums and explore the Neembucu wetlands nearby. You can also go boating or fishing all year round. During Semana Santa – a holy week held just before Easter – people come from all over the country to participate and watch a fishing tournament. On 2 January, international singers perform on open-air stages by the river during a Hawaiian Festival and a feast is held on 12 October at Basilica of Our Lady of Pilar.

Wanderlust’s guide to Paraguay

5 things you didn’t know about Paraguay

Discovering beauty and wildlife in Paraguay’s little known green paradise

South America trip planner: 8 incredible routes

1. Southern Patagonian Andes: Argentina & Chile

Duration: 10 days
Best for: Hiking, biking, glaciers and off-road adventure
Route: El Chaltén > Lago Argentino > Puerto Natales > Torres del Paine

2. Inca heartland: Bolivia and Peru

3. Under the volcanoes: Ecuador & the Galápagos

4. Costa Verde: Southern Brazil

5. Birdlife on the wild side: Colombia

6. Overland adventure: Venezuela & the Guianas

The coast road leads across lots of rivers all the way to Suriname, the former Dutch colony. Paramaribo, the capital, is approached by roads lined with churches raised on stilts to prevent any flood damage, modern factories and Chinese supermarkets, swastika-bearing Hindu temples and mosques topped by crescent moons. There’s a real cosmopolitan flavour here, and the capital has some of the best-preserved colonial buildings in all South America.

The final leg of the trip – now in EU territory – passes via the atmospheric ruined penitentiary Devil’s Island and the Guiana Space Centre before arriving in Cayenne, the capital of French Guiana; a fascinating museum, excellent French-influenced cuisine and a handful of historic sites make this a curious, but comfortable conclusion to a memorable road trip.

7. Beaches and beyond: Uruguay

8. Gran Chaco & the ‘other’ Pantanal: Paraguay

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Amazing South American walks (that aren’t the Inca Trail)

9 highlights of cycling around South America

Widen your horizons: 9 epic trips to 2020’s unexpected destinations

1. Discover Tunisia, North Africa’s best kept secret

Ksar Ouled Soltane near Tataouine in southern Tunisia (Shutterstock)

With its glittering coastline, epic desert interior and extraordinary historical sites, Tunisia is set to become North Africa’s hottest destination. This action-packed 12-day tour with Intrepid will introduce you to all the best bits, including Tunisia’s underrated, but totally delicious, cuisine.

You’ll wander through waterfront medinas where the scent of jasmine floats on the sea breeze,explore World Heritage-listed Roman ruins without the crowds and trek through the Sahara with Berber guides, sleeping under the stars in a remote desert camp.

Incredible landscapes. Hospitable locals. And a North African cuisine, blended with the flavours of Italy and Spain. Tunisia has it all.

Trip: Tunisia Expedition

Who:Intrepid

Type: Small group

When: Apr, May, Jun, Sept & Oct

How long: 12 days

How much: From £1,845 (exc. flights)

2. Experience South-East Asia in a nutshell in the Philippines

World heritage Ifugao rice terraces in Banaue (Shutterstock)

Get off the beaten track and discover a South-East Asian country with it all on this 16-day adventure through the glorious islands of the Philippines with Selective Asia.

With its white sand beaches, ancient rice terraces and traditional villages, the Philippines offers the best of the region in one compact package. From the Insta-friendly rice paddies of Banaue to the well-preserved Spanish colonial town of Vigan, you’ll enjoy everything the main island of Luzon has to offer before heading south to Palawan, famous for its pristine beaches and dramatic limestone formations.

Go now before the secret gets out.

Trip: The Philippines: Highlands To Islands

Who:Selective Asia

Type: Tailor-made

When: Flexible departures throughout the year

How long: 16 days

How much: From. £3,016 (exc. flights)

3. Take a road trip through revolutionary El Salvador

Colonial town of Suchitoto in El Salvador (Shutterstock)

Be amongst the first to discover the unspoilt landscapes and incredible hospitality of El Salvador on this ‘revolutionary’ road trip through this incredible Central American country with Journey Latin America.

Owing to its complicated recent history, El Salvador is still establishing itself as a tourist destination. But with the help of knowledgeable local guides you’ll truly get under the skin of this fascinating country, learning about its extraordinary history, taking in its breathtaking landscapes and meeting the friendly local people.

Sure, the roads can get a little bumpy at times, but as you drive through vast coffee plantations, past active volcanoes and empty beaches and along the legendary ‘Route of Flowers’, you’ll be rewarded with the holiday of a lifetime.

Trip: Signature El Salvador: Revolutionary Road Trip

Who:Journey Latin America

Type: Tailor-made

When: Flexible departures throughout the year

How long: 11 days

How much: From £2.014 (exc. flights)

4. Cycle through beautiful Bavaria

Cycling in Bavaria (Shutterstock)

The crowds might flock to European favourites Italy and France, but those in the know head to somewhere in-between – to the storybook towns and natural beauty of Bavaria, Germany.

This cycling holiday with Exodus is the best way to enjoy this surprisingly diverse region. You’ll ride on a mixture of cycle paths and side roads with little traffic, passing through traditional Bavarian villages to reach Lake Ammersee, the first of many lakes along your route.

Your first few days will take you uphill to the foothills of the Bavarian Alps to King Ludwig’s fairytale castles. The return to Augsburg, takes you along the River Lech, and along parts of one of the oldest tourist routes in the world, the Romantic Road, mainly on flat terrain.

Who knew such wonders were hiding in plain sight?

Trip:Lakes & Mountains Of Bavaria Cycling

Who:Exodus

Type: Self-guided

When: Regular departures throughout the year

How long: Eight days

How much: From £1,015 (exc. flights)

5. Encounter Eritrea, Africa’s Art Deco gem

Off to the camel market in Keren (Shutterstock)

With everyone heading to Ethiopia, consider visiting neighbour Eritrea instead: a compact country offering dramatic landscapes, fascinating history and surprisingly good coffee.

Starting in the capital Asmara, famous for its Italian style cafes and charming Art Deco buildings, you’ll spend ten days exploring this fascinating country. You’ll attend the famous camel market in Keren, wander through the historic ruins of Qohaito and soak up the sun and sand of an untouched stretch of the Red Sea coast near Massawa.

This is an extraordinary trip through a truly exciting part of Africa.

Trip:Eritrea Discovery (10 Days)

Who:Undiscovered Destinations

Type: Small group

When: Feb, Apr, Oct & Nov

How long: 10 days

How much: From £2,885 (exc. flights)

6. Uncover the real Azerbaijan and Nakhchivan

Old and new in Baku (Shutterstock)

Go beyond the glitz and glamour of the Azerbaijani capital, Baku, and discover a land of historical and natural wonders, on this small group tour with Regent Holidays.

After exploring both the modern and ancient charms of Baku, you’ll head inland to Ganja and the historical town of Sheki, as well as the little visit spots of Qabala (Gabala) and Lahij. The real highlight, however, will be the three days you spend in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, a remote and disputed enclave where time has stood still.

Trip:Azerbaijan & Nakhchivan Uncovered Group Tour

Who:Regent Holidays

Type: Small group

When: May

How long: 11 days

How much: From £2,740 (exc. flights)

7. Discover perfectly proportioned Paraguay

Jesuit ruins of the Mission of La Santissima Trinidad, Paraguay (Shutterstock)

Landlocked and overlooked, the (relatively) tiny South American country of Paraguay is a place of remarkable contrasts. It is a land of remote wildlife reserves, restored colonial towns and untouched landscapes, perfectly suited to history, wildlife and culture buffs alike.

This 12-day tour with Journey Latin America is tailor-made to introduce you to the best Paraguay has to offer. You’ll explore the colonial era charms of its quirky riverside capital, Asunción, before heading to the bird-filled wetlands, saltpans, lagoons and thorn forests of the Chaco.

In the mountains, you’ll discover the ruins of once glorious Jesuit missions. And all the while, you’ll be warmly welcomed by the youthful and optimistic population, determined to ensure you remember your stay in their remarkable country.

Trip:Signature Paraguay: The Missions And The Chaco

Who:Journey Latin America

Type: Tailor-made

When: Flexible departures throughout the year

How long: 12 days

How much: From £3,975 (exc. flights)

8. Take a walk in the Andorran Pyrenees

Observation deck Roc Del Quer, Andorra (Shutterstock)

Discover the hidden charms of walking in Andorra, the tiny mountainous country nestled deep in the Pyrenees, on this eight-day small group walking holiday with Exodus.

Andorra offer superb summer walking without the crowds. Based in the alpine village of Soldeu, you’ll spend your days trekking through protected valleys, meadows and glacial landscapes. Highlights include Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley, a UNESCO World Heritage glacial valley, the majestic Andorran valleys of Vall del Riu and the Incles and the Sorteny Nature Reserve, a botanical haven with over 700 species of flora.

Trip:Walking In The Andorran Pyrenees

Who:Explore

Type: Small group

When: Jun to Aug

How long: Eight days

How much: From £801 (exc. flights)

9. Explore Kosovo, Europe’s newest country

Prizren, Kosovo (Shutterstock)

First recognised as a country in 2008, the tiny Balkan country of Kosovo is a beguiling mix of ancient traditions, orthodox churches and majestic mountains.

This tailor-made tour with Regent Holidays is designed to take you to its very heart, travelling by local buses and private cars and experiencing its fascinating history and incredible hospitality first hand.

You’ll explore Kosovo’s main cities of Pristina, Prizren and Gjakova as well as some of its most charming rural corners. Of course, any visit to Kosovo would not be complete without sampling the delicious local cuisine. You’ll tuck into hearty traditional dishes in the mountain village of Drelaj and mouth-watering trout in Istok (Istog).

Trip:Essential Kosovo

Who:Regent Holidays

Type: Tailor-made

When: Flexible departures throughout the year

How long: Eight days

How much: From £1,110 (exc. flights)

More unlikely destinations to discover:

Off the radar: 7 amazing trips to the unlikeliest of destinations

9 extraordinary tours to Africa’s unlikeliest destinations

Europe’s undiscovered gems: The best trips

Discovering beauty and wildlife in Paraguay’s little known green paradise

Getting lost in the details was easy. I was quickly absorbed by the movements of a single species, holding my breath as the young caiman slinked off into the deep, reed-filled pond by the roadside. It was lumbering but stealthy, and immediately invisible to me – though no doubt its eyes were there, somewhere on the surface, spying, waiting.

Caiman in a pond (Dreamstime)

Out of the corner of my vision a wattled jacana stepped gingerly across a line of small lily pads, seemingly walking on water. It was foraging, pecking for bugs, busy and distracted. I caught the blurred sight of a flycatcher, zipping along the surface, and focused to watch it flying at pace, picking up food as it went, tireless and comprehensive.

But then the jacana was disturbed by something – possibly me, shifting my binoculars – and took off, its chestnut-coloured coverts revealing lemon underwings. I put down the bins and tried to take in the whole: the lush reeds, the glistening lagoon, the emerald coloured islets and banks fringed with trees.

I’d imagined the Chaco, deep in Paraguay’s untamed western region, to be a dry, desolate place, but here was an immense, unvisited wetland, stretching to the roadside – though it did feel like the middle of nowhere.

The landscape had the aspect of the Pantanal, the world’s biggest wetlands, which stretches deep into Brazil and eastern Bolivia, and with which the Chaco is contiguous. I wanted to linger, but my guide Norbert was keen to press on and show me more. We walked back towards the pick-up.

“You know, we Mennonites used to call the Chaco the ’green hell’,” he said, explaining the history of the Protestant sect and how his colony had escaped to the lawless wild of Paraguay. “When the first pioneers arrived, they found it tough to tame, and resistant to cultivation. I think that nicknames like that still keep people away.”

I looked around. Not a soul in sight for miles and miles. Not a house. Not a lodge. Not even another car. In many ways it typified the rest of the country – the forgotten destination of South America. Well-travelled writers rolled their eyes when I said I was coming here. They pointed to the fact Paraguay was land-locked and mountain-less; that it lacked world-renowned sights, where its neighbours were rolling in them. But I had other ideas.

A juvenile heron in the wetland (Dreamstime)

I had entered Paraguay ten days earlier, crossing its southernmost border with Argentina. From there, I headed to Encarnación, a god-fearing city clinging to the northern banks of the mighty Paraná river. I knew little about it, except that the author Graham Greene had visited in 1967 to write about dictators and Catholicism. The former were gone, but there was no escaping religion here.

Just north of Encarnación lay what was once the heartland of the Jesuit reducciones, or missions – self-sufficient communities backed by Spainand the Catholic Church. Established in 1609, before Paraguay, Argentina and Brazil even existed, 30 missions were built in an effort to evangelise the native Guarani people, to protect them from Brazilian bandeirantes seeking slaves to work the coffee plantations, and to advance the interests of Spain.

On my first morning I visited two local missions, La Santisima Trinidad de Paraná and Jesús de Tavarangue. The latter was completed in 1712 and is one of the larger reducciónes, its importance not diminished by its skeletal look. There was no roof, the walls were broken and the angels had lost their heads, but it’s still possible to imagine what the first visitors beheld: a great red-brick cathedral in the wilderness.

Jesuit Ruins in Trinidad Paraguay (Dreamstime)

The pair were inscribed into the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1992, even though Jesús de Tavarangue was never finished – its name translates as ‘Jesus of the town that might have been’ in the native Guarani language. The Jesuits were expelled in 1767. By then, the reducción system had grown too successful and the Spanish and ecclesiastical authorities were becoming timorous of these autonomous states within a state.

I walked across the plaza of dark-red earth and wandered into the nave, admiring the mudejar-style arches (an Italian architect had been brought in to make this one special) and scaring the guira cuckoos and parakeets that lived atop the unfinished belltower. It reminded me of the dying empire in Percy Shelley’s poem ’Ozymandias’.

Santa María de Fe had also once been a reducción. The small town was laid out over the original site of the mission and has kept something of its colonial character, with red-brick cobblestones, low-slung adobe buildings and a beautiful tree-filled plaza. I checked into the local hotel – also called Santa María – and then set off for the local museum.

The Jesuits offered the native Guaraní an alternative to the hardships of semi-nomadic existence, teaching them how to grow tobacco, maize and yerba mate (the green tea ubiquitous in southern South America). But they also instructed them in music and the arts. The museum was full of carefully carved saints, Christs, apostles and beatific-looking Marías, brought to life with natural dyes.

The hotel manager, María – evidently the only name around here – offered to accompany me on a walk around town. She showed me a wooden crucifix, erected by the Jesuits in 1647. We walked past the church, up to a miniature Calvary on which stood three more crosses.

Then we left the centre and went to the edge of town to catch the westering sun. I’m not a Catholic, or especially religious, but Santa María de Fe had a harmonious quality. If it was town planning or something spiritual I can’t say, but it was tangible.

The road north to Asunción afforded plenty more religious encounters. Nearby San Ignacio revealed an unusual display of Guaraní baroque sculpture; rejecting the idea of a skinny, humiliated Christ, native craftsmen had given him muscular calves as befits the Son of God. At Yaguarón, I visited a beautiful colonial church with a fabulous carved interior and exquisite reredos altarpiece, built on the site of a former Franciscan reducción.

It wasn’t all churches. At Paraguari, I had a spot of lunch and walked around the market on the main plaza. There, men sold cassava root – the staple of Paraguayan food, used to make chipa; this moreish cheesy snack is eaten for breakfast and to fill holes any time of the day.

An elderly lady had a stall laid out with yuyos, the aromatic herbs and grasses that are used to enliven the cold version of yerba mate, tereré, which many Paraguayans prefer due to the subtropical heat. I bought myself a small gourd and flask, so I could take up the custom and stock up on antioxidants in preparation for the capital.

A woman selling mate-enhancing yuyo in Asuncion (Chris Moss)

Asunción was nondescript around its suburban edges but, once I had time to explore downtown, I could see it was a capital city on the up. On my first night – which coincided with Independence Day – its swanky, new promenade hosted a lively folk concert and food market staffed by the local embassies. I listened to the entrancing harp and guitar music while feasting on empanadas and cheap wine.

The main centre had plenty of smart cafés and bars, as well as lively restaurants. I got my fix of strong cortado (milky espresso) coffees, freshly baked medialunas (buttery, sweet croissants) and good Italian food. The main government buildings looked spruced up and recently painted, as if in anticipation of a fussy relative.

I toured the Museo de las Memorias, a museum run by volunteers dedicated to those ‘disappeared’ during the 35-year tyrannical rule of Paraguay’s former leader Alfredo Stroessner (1954–89). On a plaza close to the presidential palace stood a huge block of cement, out of which jutted fragments of a destroyed bronze statue of the late dictator – crushed as he once crushed others.

In search of some insight beyond the cold equations of history, I visited the joyful Museo de Barro. The name means ‘Museum of Mud’, but its exhibitions – of Jesuit-era silverwork, 19th- and 20th-century indigenous crafts and modern art – connected the faiths to the people, the labour to the land, and helped me make sense of Paraguay’s multi-hued patchwork of cultures.

I then spent a luminous morning at nearby Lake Ypacaraí. The bohemian town of Areguá was lovely, all cobbled streets and bucolic charm, the water shimmering and calm. San Bernadino, across the lake, was where ‘the money’ holidayed.

Around its waters were some smart new hotels, and one particularly grand old one – the Hotel del Lago, an elegant late-19th-century property still furnished in period style with lush gardens and lake views. Former guests included Bernhard Förster, who once established – with his wife Elizabeth Nietzsche – a short-lived Aryan settlement, Nueva Germania, in Paraguay, before being thwarted by the environment.

The country has long been the destination of political dreamers as well as religious missionaries. It draws them in, then spits them out. But while life – and indeed travel – here can be difficult, this also makes it more thrilling to explore. So, after an urban reboot in Asunción, I felt prepared to take the bus north-west into the Chaco – Paraguay’s infamous and wild ‘green hell’.

The journey was slow – eight hours to cover 470 kilometres – but it was a joy to see the windows fill with savannah, its wide-open stretches studded with tall caranday palm trees. Outside, horses and fat cows grazed in emerald-coloured grassland. Cowboys on bicycles rode home in their Stetsons. It was dark when I finally made it to Estancia Iparoma, a cattle ranch just outside Filadelfia, a Mennonite settlement and the main town in central Chaco. The insects were humming, a breeze stirred invisible trees and a welcome bed awaited me in the corner of the barn.

The Gran Chaco is a vast alluvial depression that spreads across Bolivia and Argentina and occupies the whole of western Paraguay. Much of it is arid, scarcely inhabited and steamily hot in summer, and the dense tangle of scrubby forest that spreads over some areas has earned it nicknames like ‘El Impenetrable’ and ‘Terra Incognita’. But it is also a major biome (one of the planet’s largest ecological regions) and one of Latin America’s last unexplored wildernesses.

After breakfast, my host, Marilyn, suggested that I take a walk around the estancia. It was warm, but not unpleasantly so, and I soon witnessed some of the Chaco’s famous birds, including brilliant white monjitas, vermillion flycatchers, turkey vultures, a falcon and two gorgeous burrowing owls seated on a fencepost. I admired a savannah hawk – stunning in its cinnamoncoloured plumage – and a huge flock of cardinals foraging out in the baked mud.

The woods of the Chaco were equally eye-catching. There were trumpet trees with bright yellow blossoms and a mighty quebracho, or ice-breaker, with a trunk as hard as steel. There were others I couldn’t name, with evil thorns and spikes to keep the nibbling mammals at bay, or else fat trunks and tentacular branches (and roots) to keep cool and tap deep water when droughts struck.

Marilyn was a Mennonite. I’d seen some of her sect in Asunción dressed in vintage clothes, the men sporting Lincoln beards, the women headscarves. Some of them, like the Amish in the United States, work the land without machines and resist technology.

But the Chaco Mennonites are modern folk, who live much like other Paraguayans, except for their beliefs. The first wave came over from Canada in the 1920s, having left Russia to escape conscription (the Mennonite creed forbids taking up arms). Marilyn’s family, like that of many others, had arrived in the following decade directly from the Motherland. It was this generation that had opened up the Chaco.

Despite the initial hardships of settling in a wilderness so unlike their homeland, the Chaco ranchers had persevered and now grew soya, tobacco, peanuts and other crops, and raised cattle for dairy and meat. But they also leave 40% of their land wild, and Marilyn’s family had conserved corridors of trees where large flocks of birds fed, nested and hunted.

Here was also the southern borderland of the great Pantanal, the world’s largest wetland region – usually entered from Brazil. On the Paraguayan side, access to its deeper region is difficult (and expensive), although an NGO-run lodge does operate deep in the region. But you can still get a taste without giving up the best part of ten days, exploring the wetlands of the Chaco. Marilyn had arranged for her brother, Norbert Epp, to show me some of the secrets of the region that lay beyond the farms.

Leaving Filadelfia in the early morning, Norbert wasted no time in naming and explaining the trees to me: the palo borracho, or bottle tree, with its fat belly of a trunk to conserve water; the red axebreaker, used for tannin, one of the first industries in the region.

A palo borracho tree near Filadelfia (Chris Moss)

After half an hour of asphalt we hit dirt road, passing rivers and a chain of lagoons. We stopped to observe woodstorks, rheas, snail kites, ibises, hawks, parrots, herons in their hundreds, doves in their thousands. Not since I’d last been in Poconé, in the heart of the Brazilian Pantanal, had I seen such an array of birdlife.

Arriving at Norbert’s own reserve, we entered a narrow lane and stopped to study the tracks of puma and smaller cats, along with peccary, tapir and caiman. We set off on a hike around the lake.

As ever with level, lowland forests, it was difficult to make much sense of the landscape. There were palms and dense bushland hemming us in, a meandering river to cross, and a terrain that switched from reeds to mudflats to forest every few steps. Plus, there were no footpaths, no signage, no information panels. The Paraguay wetlands are far beyond the well-trodden nature circuits of South America.

Norbert led me to the foot of a wooden observation tower. I climbed a slender ladder and, feeling now a cooler breeze, stood up and looked out. The great lake lay beneath us, calm and pellucid at the banks, furrowed with tiny waves at its centre.

On all sides were flocks of Chilean flamingos, preening or stepping daintily across the shallows, even pinker roseate spoonbills sweeping the surface for insects and snails, and an immense congregation of egrets assembled in a canopy to the west. As the wind blew and then dropped away, so the clamorous chatter of this multitude of brilliant white birds reached our ears and then ebbed.

“You know, most Paraguayans associate the Chaco with the war,” said Norbert. “Either that, or bites and spikes, spiders and snakes. The vast majority never come here.”

More fool them, I thought. And more peace and uninterrupted beauty for those of us who do make the effort.

We took out a flask and prepared some tereré, which we sipped while looking out over the sparkling lake. Over ten days, I’d seen UNESCO-listed Jesuit missions, an idyllic town unchanged in five centuries, sublime art and crafts from across one of the continent’s most ethnically diverse lands, and, here in the ‘arid’ Chaco, a wetlands to inspire even the most travel-hardened wildlife lover.

Green hell? More like South America’s green heart, I’d say, and one of the planet’s true untamed, unexplored paradises.

The author’s itinerary was arranged byJourney Latin America in 2016. Find similar trips on their website. The price includes flights, transfers, excursions and breakfast.Senatur(Spanishonly), the Paraguayan tourist board,helped organise the author’s onwardtrip to the Chaco region.

There are no direct flights toParaguay from the UK. The author flewwith British Airways from LondonHeathrow to Buenos Aires (14 hours), then with AerolineasArgentinas fromBuenos Aires’s city airport up toPosadas (1.5 hours; from £110 return),on the Argentina-Paraguay border.Many airlines fly to Sao Paulo and Rio(BA and LATAM fly directfrom London), which has regularconnections to/from Asuncion.

Main image: The Presidential Palace (Dreamstime)

South America travel health guide

Latin America is huge and diverse – and seemingly full of health hazards. Take heart though – your biggest risks will be road accidents and (especially in the warmer parts) a short-lived upset stomach. However, it pays to be prepared, so here are some of the hazards that travellers to South America face.

Montezuma’s revenge

The tropical parts of Central and South America have high hit rates for travellers’ diarrhoea. The worst countries in the New World are Mexico and Peru. Along with the ‘simple’ kind of gastroenteritis that burns itself out in 36-48 hours, there are nastier pathogens that spread in the same way – unhygienic food production. These diseases include typhoid and paratyphoid (capsules now protect against both), and bacillary and amoebic dysentery.

In Bolivia, for example, fields may be fertilised with ‘night soil’ (human faeces) that effectively recycles parasites. It’s worth adhering to the ‘peel it, boil it, cook it or forget it’ rule. Raw fish – including ceviche – has been blamed for outbreaks of profuse watery diarrhoea but fish that’s well marinated in lemon is least risky. To avoid tapeworms and worm cysts in the brain, order your steak and pork well-cooked.

Ceviche, Peru (Shutterstock)

Piranhas & candiru

Piranhas and candiru fish are infamous among travellers to South America. Although piranha feeding-frenzies do happen, they are unlikely unless they’ve become trapped in a tiny body of water that is drying out.

Candiru are pencil-lead thin and parasitise other fish; on very rare occasions they try to enter the urethra of male humans taking a swim. Where these fish are common and small boys swim with them, local women are good at winkling them out. Stingrays inhabit the rivers too, so watch where you wade.

Chagas disease

This infection may have been the death of Darwin but is more commonly spoken of than experienced. It’s transmitted in the rainforests by assassin bugs, which hurt when they bite. Sleep in a hammock with attached mosquito netting.

Scorpions & spiders

Bark scorpions are particularly dangerous but there is an anti-venom so fatalities should be rare and partially depend on getting to a competent clinical facility promptly. There are over 1,000 deaths from scorpion stings in Mexico annually; those who die are mostly local children.

Widows, browns and sac spiders should be treated with respect – if they bite, there is usually an area of skin and subcutaneous tissue death.

Scorpion Pandinus imperator (Shutterstock)

Ticks

American ticks come with special health warnings – potentially they can give you one of nine dangerous infections, and American Lyme disease seems to be more malign than the European variant. Keep ticks off. If you find one feeding on you, remove it as soon as possible (pack a tick-removal tool) and flood the wound with pisco or some other strong spirit alcohol.

Leishmania

Tiny biting sandflies can squeeze through mosquito nets and spread an illness that starts as a painless ulcer-like skin lesion. This looks as if it should be itchy or painful but isn’t. It grows and may disappear spontaneously after a month or so. Depending on the form of leishmania, up to half of victims will go on to have a nasty parasitic infection that requires extended hospital treatment.

Prompt diagnosis allows a simpler, more effective cure. Odd ‘sores’ can also turn out to be skin cancers, so show any weird lumps and bumps to a doctor. Keeping covered, wearing repellent and sleeping under an insecticide-impregnated net will protect you.

Mosquito nets in the Amazon (Shutterstock)

Malaria

Malaria is a problem in much of the northern part of South and Central America – read up on your destination. Although the most dangerous forms aren’t present, malaria pills are recommended for many rural destinations.

Malaria is only one of many insect-borne diseases on offer in South America so take precautions to avoid bites at all times.

Yellow fever

Yellow fever is a disease that simmers in forest animals and breaks out unpredictably. During outbreaks in South America the authorities sometimes react by instigating mass vaccination, including stopping buses and immunising everyone on board – you’ll need to wave a yellow fever certificate to avoid being stabbed along with everyone else.

Consult the web (eg www.who.int) to check the current status of your destination. There have been some deaths reported in Brazil (in May 2015) due to yellow fever and there have been nine cases in Peru in the first three months of 2015.

Chikungunya & dengue

Chikungunya now seems to be a big problem in South and Central America and the Caribbean. It’s spread by mosquitoes and causes a disease akin to ‘breakbone’ fever or dengue, which is also a problem locally. Wear repellent at all times.

Venomous yellow eyelash pit viper (Shutterstock)

Snakes

Snakebite is a significant problem in South America but the scale of the problem is hard to gauge. People most at risk are agricultural workers clearing vegetation. Anti-venom may be available at some clinics.

Vampires

The Americas are home to real vampires: bats that bite mammals, instil anticoagulant and lap the blood; a significant proportion carry rabies. Anyone sleeping out should consider this risk; arranging pre-trip rabies immunisation would be wise.

Evidence is growing that a full course of rabies vaccine with a booster gives lifelong immunity. Dogs are less of a rabies risk than in the Old World, but even so there was a rabies death in Chile in 2013 following dog bites.

Dr Jane Wilson-Howarth has updated her health guide Your Child Abroad, now available as a downloadable PDF or Kindle. Wanderlust readers can get a 35% discount: visit www.bradtguides.com and enter the code ‘WANDERLUST’ at checkout.

Main image: Scorpion Pandinus imperator (Shutterstock)

The time traveller’s guide to South America

Winner of a 2014 Wanderlust Outstanding Achievement Award, The South American Handbook published by Footprint Travel Guides, is 90 years old this year. To mark the occasion, the Footprint team have released a facsimile of the very first edition, published in 1924.

Filled with insights into 20th century travel, scattered with wonderfully archaic prose and delightfully outdated advice, the very first handbook includes information for explorers and globetrotting businessmen and features beautiful adverts from the period.

The South American Handbook has been an invaluable companion to many of the Wanderlust team over the years (including on the trip to the Galapagos in 1992 which saw Wanderlust schemed up) and the publication of the Anniversary Edition inspired us to indulge in a spot of time travel. Mining the Footprint archives, we’ve compiled a list of intriguing extracts from handbooks past. Presenting…

The time traveller’s guide to South America

Where to stay:

Guidebook writers in the ’20s didn’t think much of the continent’s accommodation options and travellers are warned to expect the worst…

“The tambos are small primitive inns found in villages through which a traveller passes […] They present sometimes the only means of obtaining shelter overnight. […] Tinned food may advisably be carried as an emergency ration. The Mesones are taverns of an inferior kind, [and] should be avoided if possible. The Fondas are similar to the Mesones, but still poorer and still more to be shunned.”

Even hotels of the decade are damned by faint praise…

“Not many hotels in South America are as good in service, comfort, cleanliness, and food as the average high-class hotel in the large cities of the United States and Eastern Europe, but they are better than most expect.”

Getting around:

Overland journeys in the 1920s were similarly fraught, with authors warning that…

“the roads are generally suitable for ox-carts, mules, or in rare cases for motor-cars.”

And adding…

“In all the Latin American Republics, it is necessary to a greater or lesser degree to use mules, donkeys, burros, and horses for certain journeys.”

By the 1930s things have picked up…

“It cannot be too clearly understood that it is possible to travel with the utmost safety and comfort in the developed parts of the South American continent. The services along the frequented routes are as well organised as in Europe.”

And by the ’40s, travel is a relative doddle…

“Many of the republics have excellent road systems for motor traffic.”

Come the ’70s backpackers are exploring the continent, swelling the ranks of boat-tripping businessmen and would-be investors. But if you’re traversing the continent on a shoestring you’re warned not to be too miserly…

“Budget travellers should not try to hitch-hike without offering payment.”

The locals:

Female travellers in the ’20s are told to prepare for a little unwanted attention…

“Manners are different in Chile, and on the fashionable promenades youths stare at ladies as they pass, and make audible remarks on their appearance. This is not rude according to the Chilean canons, but rather correct conduct.”

What to pack:

Always a predicament. Travellers in the ’20s embarking on river journeys are advised that…

“gloves to protect the hands against mosquitoes while on deck; high shoes to protect the ankles, and a gauze canopy for the face and neck should be carried. To ward off mosquitoes, oil of citronella, sparingly applied to the exposed parts of the skin, is very effective.”

They’re also urged to remember their “coloured spectacles as a protection against sun-glare”

And to beware local washerwomen…

“One reason for taking a good supply of linen is the wear and tear on such articles by laundering. In the more remote places primitive methods of washing are used, with detrimental effects upon one’s apparel.”

More, sound advice is provided for travellers in the 1930s with a comprehensive passage on tropical headgear…

“A Panama hat is the most suitable headgear, but a soft felt hat should also be taken for high altitudes. A travelling cap is useful. In certain parts a sun helmet or solar topee is useful.”

1930s travellers should also take care not to be upstaged by fashionable locals…

“South American ladies dress with elegance, and […] lady passengers are well advised to take new and becoming clothes.”

’50s guides offered reassurance for nervy visitors commenting…

“There is no need to carry weapons of any kind, and, in fact, these are better avoided.”

While ’70s readers are advised against louche dressing…

“It is regrettable, but none the less true, that a prejudice has grown up among the authorities of several Latin American countries against young male travellers with long hair, beards, and hippy-style clothes. Young people of informal dress and life-style may find it advantageous to procure a letter from someone in an official position testifying to their good character.”

And ’90s visitors get tips on blending in and avoiding taunts…

“Buying clothing locally can help you to look less like a tourist.”

“Men wearing earrings are liable to be ridiculed in more ‘macho’ communities.”

Food and drink:

In the 1930s most gastronomic guidance centres around health. First and foremost, visitors are advised to go easy on the pink gin…

“Alcoholic liquors should be rigidly avoided until after sunset.”

Though even then, travellers could find a few home comforts abroad…

“Afternoon tea, made as it ought to be made, is obtainable in all the principal cities.”

In the 1960s caution is still advised…

“Be careful of the food: ‘Boeuf tartare’ should definitely be avoided.”

But by the 2000s travellers are being encouraged to make the most of the continent’s culinary offerings…

“Food in South America is enticingly varied; try ceviche, raw fish marinated in lemon juice and chilli.”

Health:

Sobering advice on tropical diseases is given by handbooks across the decades. ’70s travellers are told to…

“Remember that Rabies is endemic in Mexico & South America so avoid crazy-looking dogs.”

A window on world history:

Charting the rise of a continent, ’50s guide books comment…

“The two world wars had a profound effect in shaping the emergence of Latin America. Crops have been diversified; manufacturing industries have been developed; there has been a steadfast attack on illiteracy.”

And by the 1960s…

“Probably no part of the world is changing so rapidly, in detail if not in the large, as Latin America.”

Lest we take modern day convenience for granted, remember that even in the 1980s…

“There is as yet no easy, cheap way of flying directly to Latin America from Europe.”

90 years of authoritative guides:

Last but not least is the history of the handbook itself.

There are some humbling references to dedicated authors from the ’40s…

“Handbooks, like human beings, have their significant dates. This is the Twenty-First Annual Edition of THE SOUTH AMERICAN HANDBOOK. It has, that is, come of age. Five of its editions have been produced during a world war – no less than a quarter of its existence spent in wrestling with exasperating paper shortages and delay, to which must be added the constant threat to its life-line of necessary information by U-boat pack, and of physical extinction by bomb.”

While the 1970s was time for looking to the future. In the 50th Edition of the guide the authors said…

“We should like to undertake to our readers that the Handbook will continue to maintain and improve, during its next half-century, the standards that we believe have characterized it during its first fifty editions. Both publisher and editor wish to assure their public that their intention is to maintain an institution that will last until its centenary in 2024 – and beyond.”

A fitting statement on which to end. So here at Wanderlust, we ask you to raise your Martini glasses, doff your sun helmets and drink to another 90 years of the South American Handbook!

To see a collection of beautiful handbook covers and vintage adverts from across the decades visit our image gallery.

For more information on the guide and to buy a facsimile copy of the first edition see the Footprint website.

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About the trip:

Accommodation:

1. Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador & Peru

2. Los Glaciares National Park in Patagonia, Argentina

Read next 5 spectacular sights to see on the W Circuit in Las Torres del Paine

3. Iguazu/Iguaçu National Park in Argentina/Brazil

4. City of Potosí in Central Highlands, Bolivia

5. Tiwanaku in Altiplano, Bolivia

Read next Your travel guide to Sucre, Bolivia

6. Brasília in Federal District, Brazil

7. Serra da Capivara National Park in Piauí state, Brazil

8. Discovery Coast Atlantic Forest Reserves in Bahia and Espírito Santo states, Brazil

9. Historic Centre of Salvador de Bahia in Bahia state, Brazil

10. Rapa Nui National Park in Rapa Nui/Easter Island, Chile

Read next 8 highlights of Easter Island

11. Port of Cartagena on the Caribbean coast, Colombia

12. Churches of Chiloé, Chile

13. San Agustín Archaeological Park in Huila, Colombia

Read next A guide to Colombia’s six charming regions

14. Galápagos Islands in the Pacific Ocean, Ecuador

15. Sangay National Park in Central Andes, Ecuador

16. Quito in Northern Ecuador

Read next How you can explore the best of Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands

17. Jesuit Missions of La Santísima in the Trinidad de Paraná & Jesús de Tavarangue Paraná River area, Paraguay

18. Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu in the Andes, Peru

19. Manú National Park in the Amazon, Peru

20. Fray Bentos Industrial Landscape in Fray Bentos, Uruguay

21. Canaima National Park, Venezuela

Discover more of Latin America’s highlights:

1. Encarnacion

2. Gran Chaco

3. Bella Vista del Sur

4. Ybycui National Park

5. Pilar

Read more about Paraguay:

1. Southern Patagonian Andes: Argentina & Chile

2. Inca heartland: Bolivia and Peru

3. Under the volcanoes: Ecuador & the Galápagos

4. Costa Verde: Southern Brazil

5. Birdlife on the wild side: Colombia

6. Overland adventure: Venezuela & the Guianas

7. Beaches and beyond: Uruguay

8. Gran Chaco & the ‘other’ Pantanal: Paraguay

Read more on South America:

Essential travel information for

More UNESCO sites to discover

1. Discover Tunisia, North Africa’s best kept secret

2. Experience South-East Asia in a nutshell in the Philippines

3. Take a road trip through revolutionary El Salvador

4. Cycle through beautiful Bavaria

5. Encounter Eritrea, Africa’s Art Deco gem

6. Uncover the real Azerbaijan and Nakhchivan

7. Discover perfectly proportioned Paraguay

8. Take a walk in the Andorran Pyrenees

9. Explore Kosovo, Europe’s newest country

More unlikely destinations to discover:

Montezuma’s revenge

Piranhas & candiru

Chagas disease

Scorpions & spiders

Ticks

Leishmania

Malaria

Yellow fever

Chikungunya & dengue

Snakes

Vampires

The time traveller’s guide to South America

Where to stay:

Getting around:

The locals:

What to pack:

Food and drink:

Health:

A window on world history:

90 years of authoritative guides: